Climate Changes Impact On Coral Reefs Environmental Sciences Essay

This undertaking is given by our instructor and we were supposed to compose about the clime alterations. I decided to compose about the subject â€Å" coral reef † . I want to cognize more about coral reefs, non merely the general facts about how they look like or what sort of coloring material they have, but more about the interesting facts. Why are they of import today, how we as human ruin them and what we can to halt this procedure? As it says on International Coral Reef Initiative â€Å" For the first clip since 1998, mass coral bleaching is impacting coral reefs across a broad country of Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. Bleaching has been reported in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Maldives, and parts of E Africa. I know it exists menaces against coral reefs, and I want to larn more about them and what are the effects of e.g. coral bleaching. In the quotation mark above it says that coral bleaching is increasing. Why? What are coral reefs?Coral reefs, indicated by ruddy points, are found preponderantly in tropical Waterss 30 grades north and South of the equatorCoral reefs are among the oldest ecosystems in the universe. They are located 30 grades north or South of the equator, chiefly in the Indonesia and Pacific Ocean. In the Bahamas at 32 grades at that place exists an exclusion. The coral reefs can populate at that place because of the warm H2O from the Gulf of Mexico. Today the coral reefs are the largest life construction on Earth and the Great Barrier Reef is the largest individual construction in the universe Coral are single animate beings and a individual coral is called polyp. Largely the polyp live in groups of 100s to 1000s indistinguishable animate beings, and organize a â€Å" settlement † . The procedure which formed the settlement is called budding and literally the original polyp transcripts itself and the settlement grows. There exist two ways for the coral to turn either add to their limestone or reproducing. When a coral attention deficit disorder to their limestone is means that they secrete more calcium carbonate around and under their cup. The coral will so turn both upwards and outwards. The 2nd method is by reproducing either asexually or sexually. In the nonsexual manner the coral produced indistinguishable ringers or in a sexual manner by directing out sperm or eggs. Corals are divided into three different types depending on where signifier. The first one and most common is fringing reefs. They are close to the seashore and they form a boundary line to project themselves. Barrier reefs are another type and are similar to fringing reef. These besides environment land multitudes, but form a boundary line at a distance. The 3rd group of reef are called atolls and are either egg-shaped or round. They are lying off the seashore. ( See beginning 4 + 6 )Why are corals of import?Today coral reefs are of import and necessary in the universe. Great Barrier Reef, which is the universe largest reef, stretches along the nor'-east cost of Australia. The reef consist of over 3A 000 single reef and has a length of 30A 000 kilometers. It is really possible to see it from the outer infinite. A satellite exposure of the Great Barrier Reef The reef includes 400 coral species, 2A 000 fish species and six of seven species of sea polo-necks. There are many different types of coral which have assorted colorss. ( See beginning 3 )Why are the corals deceasing?There are many menaces to coral reefs. Some menaces are natural happening such as marauders and hurricanes. These are made of course, but because of planetary warming the menaces harmonizing to the coral reefs addition. Others menaces are made by human among them overfishing and pollutions. Consequence of coral bleaching Marauders and hurricanes are natural happening and it is difficult to make something about these happening because they happen of course, still increasing of rainfall over a long period lessening coral growing. The coral reefs need sunlight, clear H2O, seawater with a specific salt and warm H2O ( 23 – 29 grades Celsius ) to populate. However, addition in the temperature degree and altered salt affects the coral reefs severely. Merely one grade rise in temperature influences the coral. The harm is called coral bleaching and involves that the coral expels the algae which gives the coral its coloring material. Alternatively of being colorful the coral takes on a blunt white visual aspect. The algae do n't return if the emphasis is prolonged and as a consequence the coral dies. â€Å" The bleaching is really strong throughout Southeast Asia and the cardinal Indian Ocean. The studies are that it is the worst since 1997/1998. This is a truly immense event and we are traveling to se e a batch of corals deceasing † says Dr Mark Eakin Overfishing is a menace made by human. Today many people are dependent on fish as an income and nutrient, still overfishing is a job. It affects the coral by â€Å" taking cardinal species from the marine nutrient concatenation † . Furthermore the methods used to catch fish can besides be harmful to the coral. For case 15 states use nitrile fishing which involves dumping toxicant onto reefs to stupefy fish for easier assemblage. The toxicant does n't merely impact the fish, but besides the reefs. Another sensational method is called blast fishing, utilizing explosives to stupefy fish, and the method is used by more than 40 states. As a consequence of the detonation the coral are ripped apart and destroyed. On the other manus, addition of the H2O degree increases the thriving for harmful algae and other rivals. More rivals and harmful algae mean less infinite for the coral to growing. Likewise out of use sunlight lessening the growing for a coral and the coral can decease. ( Se e beginning 5 )Decisionâ€Å" Seventy per centum of coral reefs may be gone in less than 40 old ages if the present rate of devastation continues † . This destructing procedure has to be stopped, and it needs to be shortly. Coral reefs are place to over 1 million different species and protect the coastal metropoliss. In add-on to this, coral reefs create 1000000s of occupation and unafraid income for many people in more than 100 states in the universe. However coral reefs are a nutrient beginning for the people who live near the reefs, particularly the people on little islands. Another interesting fact is that without the being of coral reefs, parts of Florida would be under H2O. ( See beginning 7 )Beginningshypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral ( 06.12.2010 ) reef.htmHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral ( 06.12.2010 ) reef.htm & A ; url=http: //www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatbarrierreef/ † & amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral ( 06.12.2010 ) reef.htm & A ; url=http: //www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatbarrierreef/ † url=http: //www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatbarrierreef/ ( 06.12.2010 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral-reef.htmHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral-reef.htm & A ; url=http: //www.nature.org/joinanddonate/rescuereef/explore/facts.html † & amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=coral-reef.htm & A ; url=http: //www.nature.org/joinanddonate/rescuereef/explore/facts.html † url=http: //www.nature.org/joinanddonate/rescuereef/explore/facts.html ( 06.12.2010 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //animals.howstuffworks.com/marine-life/coral-reef1.htm ( 06.12.2010 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //animals.howstuffworks.com/marine-life/coral-reef2.htm ( 06.12.2010 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.icriforum.org/about-coral-reefs/what-are-corals ( 06.12.10 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.icriforum.org/about-coral-reefs/benefits-coral-reefs ( 06.12.2010 )

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Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor'spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of deviance focus ed on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer's address is Department of Sociology, Dr ake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer's (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towardthat e nd, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective'realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker's (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women's liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt's (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann's as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider's explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsig htful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim's work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor's task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor's sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested & other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested & other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar'sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield'sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor'slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people's of their own or others'motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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Critique on Gordon Allport (Theories of Personality)

Gordon Allport- theory review PSY201 Boitumelo Chantelle Mangope ? Introduction Gordon Allport was truly a phenomenal personality theorist who explained what a personality is and he bent most of the rules that were set out by other theorists including the father of personality himself, Sigmund Freud and in addition to that, he considered Freud’s theory of personality as the worst theory of all time. The Life of Gordon Allport Gordon Allport was the first American-born personality theorist and hailed from the state of Indiana, Montezuma.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/allport-1.jpg" alt="allport criticized older theories of personality for" width="340" height="322" />He was born on 11 November 1897 and died a month before his 70th birthday (9 October 1967) due to lung cancer. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts, (majoring in Economics and Philosophy), Masters of Art in 1921 and a PhD (all three at Harvard University) at the tender age of 24. After he completed his degree, he took a g ap year and taught English and Sociology at a university in Istanbul, Turkey. Gordon was lucky to have encountered an experience with Sigmund Freud for when he was returning back to the U.S to start off fellowship to do graduate work in psychology at Harvard, he stopped off at Vienna to visit one of his brothers and wrote to Freud (who was situated there) a letter asking for permission to visit him. The permission was granted and he explained there encounter as an unsuccessful on. He told Freud a story of whereby he met a young boy in a tram car ride who had a dirt phobia and he frantically told his mother not to let a dirty man sit next to him. Freud then went on to insinuate that the little boy was Allport and this caused a misunderstanding between them.This event lead to Allport having to probe further into psychology and the elements of personality because he felt that depth psychology overlooked the important truths. He developed a theory that ignored the unconscious and that w as not scientifically-based thus, stating that in order for one to learn about an individual, they have to be studied and not base the person’s personality on their unconscious motives nor on a study that was based on a group of people and an average which determined that group’s personality was found. During his prime, he held many prestigious positions and received many honors.Firstly, he served as the President of the American Psychological Association (1939) and also president of the Eastern Psychological Association (1943). He was also the editor of the Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology (1937-1949) and in 1964, he received the APA’s Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology. In addition to that, he received another award, i. e. APA’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award (1964) and as if that wasn’t enough, he was the first lecturer to teach the first course on psychology (the course was dubbed Personality: Its Psychological & Social Aspects) ever offered in the United States.Work Gordon Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of personality, and is often referred to as one of the fathers of personality. He believed that one’s personality could not be determined from the support of science and rather, through thoroughly studying an individual. He defined personality as â€Å"the dynamic organization within an individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment† Allport was a trait theorist who believed that one’s personality was made up from different traits (i. . mental structures which initiate and guide reactions and thus ultimately accounts for the consistency in one’s behavior) and those traits were organized accordingly. To further support this, he said that those traits arise within a given situation e. g. if one has a trait of being aggressive, that trait will be suppressed until the need for it to be exposed to a situation due to a stimulus (e. g. during a quarrel). He rejected the behavioral (which he thought was too deep) and humanistic (which he thought wasn’t deep enough) approaches.He emphasized on the uniqueness of each individual and the importance of the present, as opposed to his/her history, for understanding their personality. From that statement alone, it is clear that Allport was optimistic towards human nature for he further on went to say that there are individual traits, i. e. a unique pattern of traits which are possessed by an individual, and common traits, i. e. traits which are used to describe a group of individuals. One can clearly see that Allport was for human nature and uniqueness and appreciated that each individual had their own pattern of traits which could not be exactly the same as anyone else.He also went on to say that individuals are motivated by present motives and not passed motives and called this concept, t he Functional Autonomy. Major concepts of Gordon Allport Gordon Allport deduced that there are different types of traits being individual traits and common traits. As mentioned earlier, individual traits are those traits which are possessed by a certain individual and common traits are those traits which are shared by several individuals. Allport believed that in order for a personality theorist to succeed in studying an individual, they (the theorist) should focus on the individual traits and not the common traits. Those individual traits are actually a cluster of traits and not just one trait. For example, a pattern of traits which I possess are the humanitarian trait, talkative trait, friendliness trait and many more. This pattern is unique to me for it is rare for any other individual to possess it. Gordon Allport believed in using the idiographic method of research and not the nomothetic method of research because, with an idiographic method, a theorist or analyst uses a single case through intensively studying an individual whereas with a nomothetic method, one studies a group of individuals and deduces an average (i. . traits/ personality) for that group. Allport then went on to identify three types of individual traits (which he later called personal disposition). These were cardinal, central and secondary dispositions/traits. i. Cardinal Trait This trait is the one which dominates an individual and it shapes an individual’s behavior and becomes the dominating theme within a person. An example would be of Mother Theresa, the dominant theme which ran throughout her life was a humanistic theme. It is rare for most people to lack a single theme that shapes their lives. ii. Central traitsThese traits are general characteristics which are found in some degree in every person. These are the basic building blocks that shape up most of our behavior although they are not as dominant as cardinal traits. An example would be a trait of honesty. iii. Seconda ry traits Secondary traits are similar to habits or attitudes but are still more general than either. They must be included in order to provide a complete picture of human complexity. An example would be the types of clothes or food that an individual prefers. Aspects of Gordon Allport’s theory that I liked â€Å"The same fire that softens the butter hardens the egg†.That statement caught my attention when I read it and I went back to read the concept that was supported by it over and over again until I really agreed with it. The concept which supported that saying was Gordon’s concept of trait were he says that since no two people possess the same pattern of traits and that traits respond to an environmental situation (i. e. they are not always present until the need for them arises), if a single stimulus was to be administered to two different people, they would reacted differently to that stimulus. I conquer with this concept for this always happens to me.My best friend and I respond differently to stimuli. For example, I once made her buy my favourite ice-cream (because she didn’t know which one to buy) and she ABSOLUTELY hated it! This goes to show that Allport did in fact appreciate the fact that individuals are different, thus you cannot say that people who had horrible childhoods will turn out as X, Y and Z. I also favoured the â€Å"Letters from Jenny Concept† were Allport believes that one of the best methods to use in order to study an individual is to use personal documents such as diaries, autobiographies and letters.I also conquer with this for most females always write down their feelings through diaries. This has been told to us that it helps us relieve the pain or the stress and if a psychologist was to use one’s diary to determine the traits which that person possesses. There is a consistency which can be picked from a person’s daily entrants that are within their diary. Aspects of Gordon Allpo rt’s theory which I did not like Within Allport’s theory, there is a part whereby he talks about a healthy mature adult and an unhealthy (neurotic) adult.The difference between a healthy and a neurotic person is that is that the motives of an unhealthy person lie in the past whereas the motives of a healthy person lie in the future. I agree with that statement but I did not conquered with him where he mentions that one can swinging back and forth from being an unhealthy to healthy person and back to an unhealthy person (it’s a cycle). According to him, the characteristics of a healthy person are similar to those who have self-actualized (through Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation) and Maslow states that in order for one to self-actualize, they need to go through a series of stages.So, the question here is that can a man go through important steps which help him build him up then instantly dilapidate and return back to an unhealthy state? Concepts that I would use in my personal theory For my personal theory, I would definitely use the Allport’s concept of trait (whereby he mentions that a stimulus is reacted differently to different people) because it is a concept which is very practical and one goes through it on a daily.Secondly, I would use his components of personality statement whereby he states that personality is constantly (Dynamic Organization) changing. This is evident for I believe that one’s personality cannot be determined whilst they are within their first five years (unlike Sigmund Freud) because that individual is going to go through many trials and tribulations which will influence the person to ensure that they do not step into the same river again thus, they will change to a certain degree to ensure that they do not go through that again.For example, if a naive 17 year old girl has a trait of promiscuity and during her prime time, she gets raped by someone who is totally unexpected two weeks befor e her BGSE exams, she WILL change her ways of living to ensure that she never has to go through that ordeal again. Personal Critique I believed that this theory is researchable qualitatively because it stresses on how one cannot use nomothetic methods of research and should instead, use the idiographic method of research because it involves an intense study for a single case.There are a lot of cases whereby one can do their own primary research to determine whether Allport’s guidelines are in line. Also, there is a lot of secondary data which is available online and even at the library which deal with Allport’s theory. However, there are a lot of people who have criticized Allport’s work by saying that it is impossible for one to ignore the fact that scientific research needs to be done in order for one’s personality to be analyzed and assessed.This leaves a lot of field to do further investigations for someone who is interested in finding out whether All port’s work is feasible by testing his concepts and also taking into consideration everything that the critics have said and ultimately, determining their one findings. I also believe that this theory is of clinical utility because as the saying goes, â€Å"your past does not determine you future†.There are patients who are not naturally expressive of how their past was shaped up (maybe because they may be too embarrassed to voice it out) thus, a clinical psychologist could use any personal documents of the patient to try and determine problems which cannot be voiced out. Also, a clinical psychologist will be able to understand the pattern of traits that their patient has by probing on the matter of knowing what their motives are and ultimately, determine whether they are a healthy adult who is future driven and doesn’t base his/her motives on the past (as of an unhealthy person).However, this theory will not ensure consistence because if three clinical psycholo gists were to analyze one patient, each of them will have a different analysis because they will all have their own opinions thus, they might not all agree on whether the individual is a healthy adult or not. This theory is highly applicable within Botswana’s culture for Batswana are receptive people who are looking for ways in which they can better their futures. Therefore, the healthy and unhealthy concept would work greatly within our land.As a matter of a fact, the theory as a whole would experience high and positive agglutination within Botswana. In order for one to understand the nature of Botswana’s culture, one has to look at it from the following point of view. The culture of Botswana may be looked in two aspects. The older generation practices enculturation* whereby they stand strong on the Tswana morals and beliefs and practice them on a regular, for example, the patlo, kgotla meetings & letlhafula events. The younger generation practices acculturation* whereby they are receptive towards other cultures and eventually practice them for example, following he pop culture of piercing on every part of one’s body and wearing baggy (men and lesbians) and skimpy clothes (females and gays) and the culture of food (Western, Oriental, Italian and Vegetarian). If Allport’s theory was to be practiced within Botswana, it would have to be amongst the receptive group of Batswana who are willing and able to share their future goals (i. e. motives) and allow a psychologist to take a look at their personal documents and this is likely to be the younger generation.This theory is unique in its own way for it truly emphasizes on not using scientific methods when analyzing ones personality thus most theories are not like it. However, since Allport was a trait theorist, it can be noted that he wasn’t the only trait theorist. Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysneck were also trait theorists who believed that one possesses a lot of traits. How ever, they used nomothetic methods of research thus, their beliefs were not the same as Allport’s theory. Allport’s theory does not emphasize on the development of personality at the expense of another.He focuses on personality as a whole and gives a holistic view of it. Since he did not conduct nomothetic research or scientific research, he could not use the backing of those research methods to determine whether when one aspect grows, another suffers on its account. Gordon Allport was truly a man who stood by his word no matter who criticized his work and he backed his concepts with relevant research that even a lame man would understand. He is one of my favorite personality theorists and I believe that his theory is applicable to my life.

Produce a critical analysis of the completed video that involves Essay

Produce a critical analysis of the completed video that involves theorising the possible practices, i.e., setting the practice i - Essay Example The film accomplishes its goal in creating an unexpected ending, but some of the work in the beginning could better frame the intentions for the reactions of the viewer. Blindside is a film that provides a classic point of view with a cleanly performed twist at the end. The film genre that Blindside is most similar to is that of the film noir, although just as film noir does, it slips effortlessly into the many aspects of the thriller. One of the aspects of film noir is in the crisis of masculinity that is defined through alienation and despair (Silver, 5). The two male characters in Blindside create two sides of the criminal aspects of masculine crisis and alienation and despair. As the viewer first watches the film, the alienation and despair of seeking a criminal that commits horrific and bloody crimes is clear in the way in which the first character, named Michael, is framed as he works with seriousness and intensity at his desk, while the frailty of life and the vulnerability of the human existence is exampled in the way in which Neeson, the second character, is at the side of the road, shivering in the wind as he waits for Michael to appear at the crime scene. One of the most obvious ways in which the filmmakers recreate an example of the genre of film noir is through filming most of the short in black and white. However, the film does diverge from this type of film when scenes from the murder are revealed in short bursts of cinematic cuts. However, a film needs to exhibit more qualities other than the simple quality of being black and white in order to be a type of film noir. The film must build suspense and must have an essential number of basic characteristics in the building of its storyline. Silver frames these themes which are embodied in characters as follows: Alienated characters Existentialism Obsessed characters Freudianism Proletarian characters Marxism Femme fatales Feminism All of the above Structuralism While this short film does not ha ve the space in which to reflect all of these concepts, the two main characters have a duality that both reflects alienated and obsessed characters, thus providing for existentialist aspects and Freudian aspects of characterization. In addition, they appear to have the working class aspect of their character, reflected through the subterfuge which fools the audience into believing they are police, as well as through the type of clothes they wear, the cars they drive, and their working class nature as they move through their scenes. The primary aspect of this structure that is missing is the femme fatale, the woman who represents betrayal and masculine femininity. In the case of Blindside, the female character is purely the victim. She represents the impending release of the masculine build up of crisis, the According to Gates, the next evolution from film noir was to create the serial killer which moved away from the femme fatale and the victim-hero towards the relationship of the m ale-male connectivity of the investigator and the killer. The noir film was replaced with films that denied the masculine crisis through a â€Å"masquerade of masculinity† (123). In Blindside, the two male leads reflect the potential variations of the investigator, whether the victim-hero or the overtly masculine through displays of machismo, until they reveal themselves for the

Contract law- problem question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Contract law- problem question - Essay Example (Thomas v. Thomas)2 The position in respect of existing obligations under a contract and whether they can act as good consideration will now be discussed. One of situation is the one where variation of existing obligations under a contract between the parties occurs.The principle has been modified but the extent to which such modification applies remains unclear. The long established principle in respect of variation of terms and promises in that respect was that of Stilk v. Myrick3whereby it was a long accepted principle that if there was an existing contractual obligation it could never be relied upon that is it could not as good consideration for a fresh promise with the person to whom the existing obligation was owed.. The decision of Stilk and it being good law is doubtful after the case of Williams v Roffey Brothers4the facts of the case were that carpenters, plaintiff, while doing their work, asked the defendants for additional amount of money to finish the work even though they were no doing anything more than what they were already obliged to do. After completion of the work the defendants refused to pay the plaintiff. The main argument that was put forward was that there had been no consideration for the defendants’ promise to pay the additional amount and the decision of Stilk and its application would lead to the promise being construed unenforceable. However, the Court of Appeal found that that plaintiff’ could recover the promised payments for completion of work of the flats, the Court gave a broader meaning to consideration than what had been previously given. The reasoning of Glidewell LJ in particular referred to the point of ‘practical benefits’ which were likely to have accrued to the defendants as a result of them paying the additional promised amount of money, these were that such a promise ensure that the plaintiffs stayed and continued work thus the

Compare and contrast Alcott's and Stevenson's depictions of 'growing Essay

Compare and contrast Alcott's and Stevenson's depictions of 'growing up' - Essay Example As Massachusetts is part of the New England, Alcott and her writings were obviously influenced by the political and social developments during her time such as the beginnings of Industrial Revolution (this revolution originated in old England and took first roots in the New England region) that transformed society and business, movement to abolish slavery (the author herself was an abolitionist who gave refuge to a fugitive slave), the introduction of free public education and feminism. It was during this period that the first stirrings for womens rights took hold in the form of the universal suffrage (which meant allowing the women to vote for the first time). Alcott with other female writers took the lead in these movements. It was a time of ferment and excitement, when social barriers were being challenged or being torn down. It was also in New England that the first pieces of truly American literature were published. This region produced so many prominent writers and poets like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Emily Dickinson. Some of them were her contemporaries, family friends or personal acquaintances and influenced her works. The other novel, â€Å"Treasure Island† by Robert Louis Stevenson, is one of the famous male adolescent novels of all time. It is a coming-of-age story that has acquired a life of its own in the annals of children literature. Although written entirely as fiction, its descriptions of sea voyages, pirates, maps, buried treasures and tropical islands are so authentic it had been a source of entertainment and inspiration for generations who longed for adventure, risk taking and excitement. The author used the knowledge and experiences he gained in travelling with his father and grandfather, who were both lighthouse engineers, on their maritime expeditions to check on lighthouses as the primary source of much of his exacting

Describe the original position. why does Rawls thinks that it is a Essay

Describe the original position. why does Rawls thinks that it is a good device selecting principles of justiceHow does Nozick c - Essay Example The foundation of this principle is that everybody is takes up a position in the society as equal and free in relation to other members of the same society. The people therefore agree to jointly commit to the principles of social and political justice. This position, the original position, is distinguished from other social views by what Rawls terms as the â€Å"veil of ignorance†; an insurance policy that guarantees impartiality of ones judgment. This is done by depriving every member of the society all the knowledge of his or her unique and individual characteristics relative to the other members of the same society based on the historical and social characteristics of the said individual. They therefore operate from a common point of ignorance as to the circumstances and capacities of every member of that society (Rawls, 1999, p. 15). However, as to their knowledge of specific fundamental interests that they all enjoy, nothing is done. This is in addition to information bas ed on biology, economics, psychology and several other aspects of the social sciences. Under the original position therefore, the parties are then given several alternatives of the major conceptions of what justice is based on the common and customary usage of political and social philosophy and given the option to pick the best alternatives of the concept of justice that would be the best means of advancing their interests. These interests are those aspects that would then enable them to pursue their fundamental interests and final ends in the most effective manner. In the best possible justifiable scenario that while ensuring all their interests are catered for, it does not short change the individual member of the group (Rawls, 1999, p. 17). It is the contention of Rawls that it would be most rational for the parties involved in making these choices to select the two principles of justice. The first principle of justice guarantees individual’s basic rights and freedoms tha t are needed to ensure the security of the most basic interests of an individual who is free. It also allows citizens to equally pursue a broad range of conceptions that they consider to be good. The second principle of justice is more sociological. It provides equality in employment opportunities and education. In this way, individuals are enabled to compete at an equal level for the prerogatives and powers of any office. It also secures for everybody the minimum of the all-purpose means, this includes wealth and income that one would require in order to pursue their specific interests and to maintain their dignity as equal and free persons of the society in which they are in. The Original Position and Argument for Justice It should be noted that according to Rawls, the original position is not a situation that involves bargaining. This view does not contemplate that the parties will make proposals and counterproposals so as to negotiate the various principles of justice. It is als o no a free ranging discussion. The parties do not come up with their own constructions of what justice is. The fundamental basis of this position is that the deliberations that may exist between the members of the society are more constrained. They are actually given a specific list of the conceptions of justice that is based on the social and political philosophy of the West. While the list is not exclusive, its principles are basically

Top Mama's Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Top Mama's Case - Essay Example Upon leaving the studio, she was arrested and charged with indecent exposure. Top Mama was found guilty and sentenced to jail term of 30 days. Her conviction in the lower courts was upheld. Reaching this Supreme Court, we should clearly discuss the First and Fourteenth Amendments invoked in this case. According to Mark Stevens (2003), all together, there are six (6) rights guaranteed by the First Amendment -- religion, speech, press, assembly, association, and petition --  Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.  Collectively, they protect what is known as the freedom of expression  (Stevens, 2003). Mark Stevens (2003) stated that association is a derivative right from speech, assembly, and petition. The right to free speech is more commonly referre d to as  freedom of speech.  Ã‚  Justice Hugo Black (1937-1971) was the last to believe the absolutist interpretation of the First Amendment which states that â€Å"Congress shall make no law† means that Congress shall make no law. Such an absolutist interpretation of the First Amendment leaves no restrictions on obscenity, libel, or slander (Stevens, 2003). More predominant interpretations look at speech as distinct from  speech plus  conduct, or the  effects of speech. Congress has every right in the world to control these things (Stevens, 2003). It's also possible to draw upon the social contract theories of the founding fathers to understand that the First Amendment was intended to serve several important social functions. These functions include educational function, safety valve function, truth-seeking function, and lastly, the social obligation function. These social functions indicates that the First Amendment is about protecting the public good rather than individual freedom and that freedom of speech in America has never been absolute (Stevens, 2003). In the case at bar, Top Mama was invoking the First Amendment on freedom of speech, or in her case, the symbolic speech. Symbolic speech is the nonverbal communication similar to speech or conduct that may receive protection under the 1st Amendment. During 1960s and 1970s, the main issue was symbolic speech which Antiwar protesters were not so much saying things as doing things, like burning flag, draft cards, holding sit-ins, love-ins and the like (Stevens, 2003). According to Stevens (2003), one of the first cases which considered whether symbolic speech such as this deserved constitutional protection was the 1968 case of U.S. v. O'Brien. In the  O'Brien Test, governments must have a substantial government interest that is not related to suppressing the message before contemplating action restricting expressive conduct or symbolic speech such as it is unconstitutional to have a flag desecration law if the only reason for having it is that people should respect the flag (Stevens, 2003). This is the most widely-used test. The Court was providing absolute protection to the message, but not the conduct (Stevens, 2003).  O'Brien  involves some deep psychological issues as the  critical test for separating message from conduct (Stevens, 2003).Thought and belief are not subject to government control, but speech is often the link between thought and action (Stevens, 2003). The current situation is that symbolic speech, like  flag-burning, is constitutionally protected. In a narrow 5-4 majority with  Texas v. Johnson (1989), the Court upheld the right to burn the flag, regardless of its symbolism, as long as a disturbance of the peace does not occur (Stevens, 2003).

Wings to Intellectual Cinema with a Mix of Excitement and Special Essay

Wings to Intellectual Cinema with a Mix of Excitement and Special Effects - Essay Example The text has an exquisite presentation of fiction and magic realism. This paper is aimed to review the short story, discuss its feasibility as a film, and explain the potential target audience. I feel that both the text and its cinematic adoption will have similar target audience. Review The text ‘A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings’ can be primarily classified under the category of magic realism. It is one of Marquez’s famous short stories written in 1955 that we find in the book Leaf Storm. The backdrop of the plot is set in a rural area. Pelayo and Elisenda is an impoverished couple who lived in a sorrowful state of extreme poverty. Their little son is badly sick. On a stormy afternoon one day, the couple finds a very old man who has huge wings attached to his body in their courtyard. When the couple tries to communicate with him, they find his language they do not understand. Pelayo locks the man in his chicken coop. From this point, the game of magic and reality begins. Magic being the arrival of the old man with wings, the reality is the manifestation of curiosity entrenched human minds. Hundreds of villagers now begin to visit the couple’s house to see the strange old man. Pelayo and Elisenda inform Father Gonzega about the man. Father Gonzega arrives and tries to communicate with the old man but fails. Marquez brings marvelous satire at this stage. Father Gonzega informs the Vatican about the old man, who in turn asks the priest to examine that whether the old man could be an angel or not. Father Gonzega acts accordingly and examines him. He finds that the old man does not know Latin, or Aramaic, is very frail, and has too many mortal features to be an angel. Father’s feedback to the Vatican leaves the Catholic Church a strange conclusion †¦ The old man is a Norwegian sailor! This satire shows that how unquestionable faith may create so much confusion that not even the bas ic elements of anomaly or wonder are distinguished. The intellectual content of the story increases along with its innovative unusualness when a young woman with human head and a body of a spider is introduced in the village. She says she had disobeyed her parents and hence she was punished by the means of such a strange transformation. In the meanwhile, Pelayo and Elisenda have become rich as they have been charging a fee from the visitors who come to see the old man in large numbers. However, with the appearance of the strange woman, visitors shift their attention to her. This is how the short lived excitement and inconsistency of human askance from one topic to another is exhibited. At the end of the story, the old man simply flies away. He had brought much fortune to the impoverished couple, but he faced unnecessary cruelty, and ultimately, negligence. Interpretation The overall message is mixed. There is religious satire that involves the Catholic Church and the power mechanism s of this institution. There are the inconsistencies of human mind and perceptions. There is a subplot of an interesting woman, who has the body of a spider. There is emotional tug of war at the end. So, the story has lots of intellectual substance. The tone is fluctuating from humor to fiction and satire to emotion. Marquez has not given any clear indication that for whom has he written this story. However, it appears to be appealing to a varied spectrum of audience. The characteristics of the story suggest that it is thought provoking, exciting, and sometimes, rather comic. Despite these qualities, it seems that too many ideas sometimes infest the plot and the developments in the text with absurdity. It is not good to

Accounting issues over the next three years that should be addressed Essay

Accounting issues over the next three years that should be addressed with FASB - Essay Example Accounting standards are very crucial to the effective functioning of the economy. This is mainly because most of the decisions pertaining to the allocation of resources rely heavily on credible, concise, transparent, and comprehensible financial information. The FASB develops accounting concepts as well as standards for financial reporting. It also provides guidance on how to implement them. These concepts are useful in guiding the Board in establishing standards and in providing a frame of reference, or conceptual framework, for resolving accounting issues. Perhaps the most important issue that the FASB has been working on is to reduce the complexity and to improve the usefulness and transparency of reporting financial information. According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) there is a need for comparability of financial statements, need for implementation guidance and a need for an appropriate transition. In 2006, the Financial Accounting Standards Board voted unanimously to revamp rules on lease accounting that allow revising the rules that permit companies to keep certain leases off their balance sheets. The board agreed to work jointly on the project with the International Accounting Standards Board. However, the FASB Chairman Robert Herz, himself admitted that amendments to FAS 13 may not be finalized till late in 2009. This project is also to be done to coordinate lease accounting standards with the IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) which sets accounting standards for Europe and many other countries. The IASB and the FASB have significant differences in the way they treat leases. Although both follow the concept of capital and operating leases but FAS 13 (which questions whether the lease term is 75% or more of the economic life, and whether the present value of the rents is 90% or more of the fair value) is not used by the IASB, which prefers a

Argue that federal financial aid should not be based on parents' Essay

Argue that federal financial aid should not be based on parents' income when students are under age 24 - Essay Example In other words, only the students under the age of 24 will get the financial aid from the federal government and that also if and only if their parents have a low income. In my opinion, the financial aid should not be based on parents income when students are under the age of 24. Government has a moral responsibility in the education of all the students irrespective of the financial capacities of the parents since the contributions to the students are vital in nation building process. All the students are contribution in one way or other for the development of the nation when enters their professional life. Under such circumstances, it is the duty of the government to give their share in the form of financial aid while the students are studying. Since all the students; rich or poor are working for the nation after the completion of their studies, giving ample assistance to the students is the responsibility of the government. In schools and colleges, the education system is trying to avoid all forms of discrimination and that is why in schools uniforms were made compulsory. Under such circumstances, limiting the financial aids to a particular segment alone may create dissatisfaction among the students who failed to get the financial aid. â€Å"Some Republicans say eliminating the subsidy could save the government more than $9 billion in five years, but the democrats say that would burden students with too much debt†(Sanchez). It is a fact that the American government is currently facing severe financial crisis because of the recession problems. At the same time nobody will say that the current crisis was caused because of the financial aids given to the students. Many people believe that the current financial crisis was the bi-product of the huge expenditure made on war on terror, Iraq war etc. If the government has so much money for these kinds of wars, there is no point in limiting the financial aids to the students, when

Coca Cola Strategy Essay Example for Free

Coca Cola Strategy Essay Slide1: International strategy (tià ªu Ä‘á »  cá » §a slide nhà © c) The enterprise has core competencies = the competitors in the host country does not have or difficult to develop, catch up or imitate Being not under pressure to localize products and to reduce production costs Companys head office played a central role Slide 2: International strategy of Coca Cola (1900 to 1950) 1899-1909: added to 379 bottling plants across the United States for consumption of about 70 million liters / year. 1906: developing the first bottling plant in Havana, Cuba = marked the first step of Coca cola international market 1936: World War broke out = the bottling plant follow the army and when the war ended, coca has owned subsidiaries in 64 countries. 1950: Coca cola started advertising on TV = effects promote in worldwise Slide 3: Global Strategy A business strategy as global market or single market Company produce and deliver the products which are standardized and identical. Businesses build production facilities globally in locations with low cost as the basis for operational efficiency = save cost The operation of the system will be connected and coordinated through a central management official Make the business does not pay attention to the important differences between different markets = opportunity for competitors to jump in and meet the needs Slide 4: Global Strategy of Coca cola (1950 to early 2000) Coca-cola implementing global business strategy by: producting homogeneity, uniforming marketing strategy worldwide. In the 1970s and 1980s: + very diversified distribution system in both horizontal and vertical, + the bottling plants of Coca-Cola were on around the world + linked the retail stores to serve consumers better. In the 1990s: find new market with the advantages of the new front to the market = Africa and Asia Slide 5: Transnatoinal strategy Make a separate strategy for each country in which businesses consume their  products. Implemented localized products and methods of marketing products to suit the tastes and preferences of each national market Slide 6: Transnatoinal strategy of Coca cola (from 2000s to now) Set up independent subsidiaries, joint ventures in different markets = carry out the research and development stage products, manufacturing and marketing products in the local market. In the early 2000s: success on a global scale with nature is a business providing consumer goods Local adaptation Think local, act local: strategy towards adaptation but not contrary to the traditional strategy of company-global strategy Distributed organizational structure according to geographic area, including five areas: -North America Latin America. Europe, Asia, Europe and the Middle East borders. Asia Africa. Slide 7: Localization strategy of Coca cola: Localization strategy: the practice of adjusting a products functional properties and characteristics to accommodate the language, cultural, political and legal differences of a foreign market or country. For Coca Cola this will be done through a number of actions, first is changing their method of advertising. Ex: In India the use of celebrities would be used more than in Africa whereby football is the bigger love of the people Coca-Cola decided to change their iconic product name to something a little more consumer-friendly for Chinese market, adopted to use Chinese characters to present a truly localized version of their logo. Cuá »â€˜i cà ¹ng là   cà ¡i clip t gá » ­i hà ´m trc nhà © Há º £i.

Comparison of Wren Micro-turbojet Engine and Wren turbo-drop

Comparison of Wren Micro-turbojet Engine and Wren turbo-drop Introduction In the following report, one will be analysing and comparing the wren micro-turbojet engine and the Wren turbo-prop, the engine will be tested in the Aviation laboratory in the houldsworth aviation laboratory, here the tests will be carried out, but before the test s are carried out on each of the propeller that needs to be used for the turbo prop must be chosen. The propeller will be chosen in its efficiency in a certain variable which will be chosen later in the report, there is a choice of a few different propellers, tests shall be ran on each different propeller with the results been recorded by the FADEC. Once the propeller has been chosen tests shall e ran on both engines, the results will be analysed with numerous variables, Health and safety During the course of the lab work, health and safety will play a big part in keeping people safe, Engines pose many possible hazards which are listed below: Noise: The engines that will be used will produce a loud noise that is capable of damaging hearing permanently; therefore the test will be run with the testers wearing ear protection to prevent permanent ear damage. Fuel: fuel poses numerous threats in the lab; the highly volatile liquid can produce vapour that can cause an explosion so therefore all fuel must be kept in a sealed container that must be kept sealed and stored in a cool, dry place away from irresponsible personnel. Fuel is also irritable when in contact with skin so therefore gloves must be worn when in contact with the substance. The engines: the engines themselves pose a huge health and safety risk, the engines contain many objects in motion which can cause a hazard if any of the objects become loose, which could result in a projectile being thrown across the room, to eliminate this risk, the tests will be carried out in a separate room from the testers. The engines also produce fumes which are harmful to humans so an extraction pipe is now attached to the exhausts to remove most of the fumes but testers must be wary that the extraction system may not be 100% efficient so contact time after the runs must be kept minimal. As engines must be run correctly to be run safely, inexperienced testers must always be supervised by personnel with sufficient experience with the engines. The fumes that are produced by each engine must be sufficiently vented away from the area as they are a hazard to health. Extraction system failure At the beginning of February 2010 the group was told that the lab where the engine runs were to be carried out had been ruled unsafe due to the failure of the ventilation system had failed. It was possible that the test could not have been carried out, which the whole group was disheartened by, but the group pulled together and all tried to find a solution for the problem, many avenues were explored, even the possible opportunity of the back of a restaurant. Gareth Atkinson contacted multi flight about the possibility of running the engines at their base as it is located at Leeds-Bradford airport, Multi flight obliged so therefore Gareth Atkinson filled out the risk assessment form shown in appendix A. By the time Multi flight replied back with their permission the group decided that that time was against us for running the engine tests at Multi flight, results from previous engine runs were used instead. The Jet Engine The Engine has proved to be an innovative piece of machinery and has allowed the aviation industry to be what it is today, nearly all of the innovative aircraft of today and conceptual aircraft of tomorrow are all powered by the same type of engine the jet engine. The first form of jet propulsion device was first patented by a French engineer Renà © Lori in 1913 but the design remained conceptual as the design needed heat resisting materials that were not available at the time plus the reason that the jet engine was not suitable to fly at the low airspeeds as they did at the time (1996a) The design of which is shown in figure 1. Not until 1930 did frank whittle receive a patent for a jet engine, Frank whittle went on to build the first jet engine which had its maiden flight 11 years after its patent was received. From this basic foundation more advanced jet engines were produced. Since this first prototype the jet engine has developed from this early prototype to power aircraft that travel faster than sound. The jet engine works by compressing air adding fuel and combusting the mixture using the pressure increase to accelerate the air rearwards out of a propelling nozzle. The compression is the first stage of a gas turbine engine, there are many different configurations of compression the first form was the centrifugal compressor, which is the same compressor is fitted to the Wren micro-gas turbines that will be tested in this dissertation. Centrifugal compressor The centrifugal compressor essentially does what it says on the tin and compress the air using centrifugal forces, the air is compressed by an impeller which is attached and rotated by a shaft that is connected to the rear turbines, which convert the pressure, velocity and heat energy from the exiting gas in to mechanical energy to rotate the shaft which turns the impeller at high speed. The air introduced continuously throughout the running of the engine through to the eye of the impeller which then enters the rotating guide vanes and due to centrifugal forces causes the air to move towards the tips of the impeller; here the air enters the diffuser which is a system of stationary(Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996) ducts which are designed to convert the kinetic energy of air stream into potential energy, which further increases the pressure of the gas. Below is a diagram showing a cross-section of the impeller and the changes in pressure and velocity throughout the impeller: From figure 2, the graph at the right shows the pressure and velocity changes at each stage of the centrifugal compressor, as the air enters the eye of the impeller. The air is subjected to a centrifuge which increases the pressure and velocity of the airstream, the air then passes through to the diffuser section where the passage of divergent nozzles convert the kinetic energy into pressure energy. The graph shows that half the pressure rise occurs in the impeller and the other half in the diffuser section. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Axial flow compressors Axial flow compressors have a higher compression ratio than centrifugal compressors provided air which is at a higher pressure therefore used over centrifugal compressors as the higher pressure give better performance. Axial flow compressor consists of alternating rotor and stator blades, where each stage, which consists of a row of rotating blades followed by a row of stator blades, increases the pressure by a small amount so therefore several stages are required to give the pressure increase required. Where many stages of compression operate on one shaft it becomes necessary to vary the stator vane angle to enable the compressors to operate effectively at speeds below the design conditions. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). A single spool compressor consists of one rotor assembly and stators with many stages as required achieving the desired pressure ratio, a multi-spool compressor of two or more rotor assemblies, each driven by their own turbine at an optimum speed to achieve higher pressure ratios and to give greater operating flexibility. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Principles of operation During operation the rotor is turned at high speeds by the turbine which makes sure that air is constantly being inducted into the compressor, which then is accelerated by the rotating blades and swept rearwards into the adjacent row of stator vanes. The pressure increase results kinetic energy received by the air by the rotor vane, which is then decelerated (diffused) by the stators vanes turning the kinetic energy into pressure. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Combustion Chamber The combustion chamber has the task of burning large quantities of fuel supplied through the fuel spray nozzles, with large volumes of air supplied by the compressor and releasing heat in a controlled process that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions required by the turbine. The amount of fuel added will depend on the temperature rise required although the maximum temperature is limited by the materials that make the turbine blades and nozzles. (Rolls-Royce Limited, 1996) The combustion process The air arriving from the compressor is travelling at speeds up to 500 feet per second, which if entered the chamber would put out the flame due to the airs high velocity, so therefore the air must be decelerated. The air is diffused so the velocity is reduced also giving the added benefit of increasing the pressure. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). IIn normal operation the overall air/fuel ration can vary between 45:1 and 130:1, however kerosine will only burn efficiently at, or close to, a ratio of 15:1, so the fuel must be burned with only part of the air entering the chamber, in what is called the primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means of a flame tube that has various devices for metering the airflow distribution along the chamber. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). As shown in Figure 4, 20% of the air mass flow enters at the snout of the chamber, immediately downstream are a perforated flame and swirl vanes, the swirling air induces a flow upstream of the centre of the flame tube and promotes desired re-circulation. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Through the wall of the flame tube body, next to the combustion zone, are a number of secondary holes were a further 20% of the main flow of air passes into the primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and that from the secondary air holes interacts and creates a region of low velocity recirculation, this take the form of a toroidal vortex, very similar to a smoke ring, this helps stabilise and anchor the flame the flame. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). The temperature of the gases after combustion is around 1800 to 2000 °C, which is far too hot for entry to the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. As only 40% of the total airflow is used in the combustion process, so the 60% is left to help cool the air, which is introduced progressively into the flame tube. Approximately a third of this is used to lower the gas temperature in the dilution zone before it enters the turbine, whilst the remainder of the air is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube. This is achieved by a film of cooling air flowing along the inside surface of the flame tube, insulating it from the hot combustion gases. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Types of combustion chambers There are three main types of combustion chambers used in gas turbine engines; these are multiple chambers, turbo-annular chambers and annular chamber. Multiple combustion chambers This type of Combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor engines and primitive axial flow engines. The chambers are disposed around the engine and compressor delivery air is directed by duct to pass into the individual chambers. Each chamber has an internal flame tube around which there is an air casing, the air passes through the flame tube snout and also between the tube and the outer casing as earlier described. All the flame tubes are all interconnected which allows them to operate at the same pressure and also allows combustion to propagate around the flame tubes during engine starting. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Tubo-annular combustion chamber The tubo-annular combustion chamber bridges the evolutionary gap between the multiple and annular types. A number of flame tubes inside a common air casing. (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Annular combustion chamber This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube in a completely annular form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing. The main advantage of the annular system is that for the same power output, the length of the chamber is 25% shorter than the tubo-annular system for the same diameter, saving weigh and production costs. . (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Combustion chamber performance A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a wide range of operating conditions without incurring large pressure losses. Also if flame extinction occurs, then it must be possible to relight. . (Rolls-Royce Limited., 1996). Turbines The turbine has the job of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories and sin some engines shaft power for the propeller or rotor. This is done by extracting energy from the hot gases from the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. The turbines are subjected to high stresses with the turbine tips speeds reaching over 1,500 feet per second with gas temperatures. Types of turbines Gas turbine manufacturers have concentrated on the axial flow turbine, although some manufacturers are building engines with a radial-inflow turbine. The radial-inflow turbine has the advantages of being rugged, simples and relatively inexpensive and easy to manufacture compared to the axial flow turbine. On this type of turbine, inlet gas flows through the peripheral nozzles to enter the wheel passages in an inward radial direction. The speeding gas exerts a force on the wheel blades and exhausts the air in a radial direction to the atmosphere. These turbine wheels, used for small engines, are well suited for a lower range of specific speeds and work at relatively high effieciency. Micro turbines in industry In this section I will discuss and analyse the role of micro turbines in industry within aviation and out of aviation. Micro turbines can be used to produce electricity as well as power some ships. WREN ENGINES In this section I will be analysing the company of WREN, I will include what they do, their history and the current situation. I will note that the workers are enthusiast and work at a minimal wage to keep the company in business. WREN turbo prop In this section I will analyse the turboprop that will be tested in more detail. I will go through each component in a fair amount of detail, I will go through the manufacture process in some detail, and analyse the materials that are used. Wren turbo jet Here I will do in the same format as the turboprop but with a diary of our engine build: here is some rough notes I have made of the engine build# 26/10/09 Did our Risk assessment with Chris brier, told info on all aspect. Got on to the engine build, went smoothly until step 11 when inserting the shaft into the middle we dislocated bearings due failing to follow a step properly. We immediately called Chris brier to help us with our issue; he showed us how to replace the ball bearings into place. We then progressed onto the next step, at this point we saw etchings on the shaft and the rear turbine which we asked why they we like so We learnt that they were there for mass balancing, as an imbalance in weight would cause the shaft to distort. Balancing is done on each individual shaft by the manufacturer by a machine. Another aspect of the is the inefficiency of the compressor Compared to lager jet engines the gap between the edge of the compressor blades and outer skin is comparatively large therefore not all of the compressed air is used for the production of thrust, some leaks behind the compressor Step 16- when fitting turbine shrouds the turbine rests on a rim and not on turbines. Step 17- aligning case front, case front has been checked and aligned to the best of our abilities. Step 21- chamber stand-offs successfully crimped Step 22- comb chamber fixed in place, gas and oil tube is place and 3 stand-offs screwed in We found that the gas tube didnt fit because of misaligned lubrication pipe. So backtrack in progress was required to re-configure this step. In the process of correcting the combust chamber bearings in the same place fell apart, so were back to the same stage again Analysis This section I will analyse the results in detail evaluation Evaluate the whole process conclusion AppendiCise Apendix A Multi-flight risk assessment form Rolls Royce PLC. (1996a). The Jet Engine (5th Edition ed.). Birmingham: Renault Printing Co Ltd.